Some Rules to Be Observed in Preparation of the Independent Study Thesis and Papers

(Also see Pechenik's A Short Guide to Writing about Biology)

The Scientific Paper

1. A scientific paper is written in the past tense. Record observations (as well as the work of other investigators) and experiments in the past tense.
   • Use the present tense for generalizations and referrals to stable conditions.
   • Examples: Smith (1925) reported that Euclena gracilis has a flagellum.
     (The latter is a statement of fact, therefore, the present tense is used.)
   • Paramecium caudatum was identified in the culture. P. caugatum has certain identifying characters, namely, ---
2. Understate, avoid hyperbole. Do not say something proves something else (it never does). Avoid words like utterly, absolutely, wonderful, exciting, etc.
   
3. Do not write a diary.
   
4. Do not (don't) use contractions.
   
5. Do not use footnotes.
   
6. Do not use direct quotations unless absolutely necessary. If quotations are used, they must be indicated by the use of quotation marks as well as the proper citation. Digest the information and write your own statement.
   

1. Italicize all species names.
   
2. Italicize all generic names whether used alone or as part of a species name.
   
3. Never use a specific trivial name by itself. It must be used with a generic name.
   
4. If you identify an organism or group of organisms only to genus and,
   • there appear to be only a single species present in the collection, list the identification as the generic name followed by the abbreviation'sp';
   • there appear to be several species present in the collection, list the identification as the generic name followed by the abbreviation 'spp.'.
     
5. The abbreviation 'sp.' or 'spp.' after a generic name is not italicized.
   
6. If the name of the genus is used as part of a scientific name more than once it may be abbreviated. (e.g., Euglena gracilis, E. spirogyra, E. viridis, etc.), unless you refer to multiple genera that start with the same letter.
   
7. Common names, e.g., Hydra, Amoeba, Dugesia, Paramecium, derived from generic names should be handled as genera, i.e., capitalized and italicized.
   
8. Higher taxonomic categories (i.e., those above genus are capitalized, but common names derived from higher categories are not capitalized. Examples: Protozoa vs. protozoans, Annelida vs. annelids, Copepoda vs. copopods, Arthropoda vs. arthropods
   
9. If you are in doubt about a generic determination of an organism identified only to genus, put a question mark in parenthesis after the genus (e.g., Paramecium (?)).
   
10. If a species identification is doubtful, place a question mark in parenthesis after the species name.

1. Do not include references in the Literature Cited section of the paper that are not referred to in the body of the text.
   
2. Do not refer to a paper or author in the text without including an appropriate reference at the ends of the paper in the Literature Cited.
   
3. Prepare your bibliography and make your citations carefully!
   
4. Document your paper fully. Statements of fact which are not common knowledge and which you have not discovered as a result of your own observations should be supported by a reference to a paper which authenticates the statement.

1. Always give a number to each figure and table. Refer to these in the text of your paper as Fig. 1, Table 3, etc. All illustrations are figures, except for tables.
   
2. Always refer to all illustrations somewhere in the body of the text.
   
3. Each illustration must have a title. A legend may also be included. e.g., Fig. 2. The life cycle of the love bug. (These data were collected 6/12/73 - 8/15/73.).
   
4. Titles and legends for tables are placed above the tables. Titles and legends for figures are typed below the figures.

Miscellaneous

1. Words frequently misused in biology papers.
   Differentiate properly between the following words:

   a) Singulars and plurals: alga, algae; fungus, fungi; bacterium, bacteria; protozoan, protozoans; medium, media; genus, genera.

   b) Affect and effect.

   c) Site and cite.