A. Introduction
Expressing your ideas in writing is one of the most important skills you can develop. It is important not only in your college courses but in your post-college plans as well. There are very few jobs available in which you wonšt need to report your progress in written form, using memos, reports, or other presentations. At that point, your ability to write clearly, effectively, and in an organized way may well determine whether you continue to be employed. This statement, then, is designed to help you show off your ideas more effectively in writing.
B. Organizing the Paper.
All papers need:
l. A clear introduction telling the reader the main questions that the paper will try to answer, why those questions are important, and how you will proceed to answer them;
2. A body, generally divided into sections, with each section headed by a phrase or question describing its content, organized so that each section leads into the next;
3. A conclusion that not only summarizes what has been learned, but also discusses the implications of the findings: what they mean for someone interested in the paperšs topic.
One of the main reasons for disorganization in a paper is that the author has not clearly defined his or her purposes in writing it. Before you write the paper, force yourself to phrase one sentence, in the form of a question, that best captures your reason for writing: for example, "what are the domestic and international forces that currently influence the choice of structural adjustment policies in Indonesia?" Or: "which factors have the greatest impact on leaders' decisons to use repression?" That question will form the basis for your introduction to the paper. Be sure to discuss why the question you phrased is important -- why anyone would want to know the answer to it.
Next, break that main question down into a series of sub-questions. To answer the main question, what do you need to know? The background of the situation? The types of groups involved? Their actions and the results of those actions? What this particular case tells us about more general problems?
List the sub-questions that you feel are important steps in answering your main question. Write them in an order that flows logically from the introduction to your resolution of the question. There are many ways to order the sub-sections of a paper; choose the order that seems most logical to you. If you are uncertain, ask a friend or an instructor to look at the list of sub-questions and tell you whether that ordering helps him or her to make sense of the argument. These sub-questions can then become headings for the sections of your paper. To complete your outline, list under each section heading the points that you want to cover in that section. Constructing this type of outline takes time, but it often saves a lot of time in the actual writing of the paper.
C. Substance: Research
l. How many sources of information? It is wise to use as many different sources as you can in researching your paper. Check the computerized search systems in the Library for articles on your subject. (These search systems will give you access to a wide range of sources. Be sure to choose articles from respected sources; the New York Times and the Washington Post are preferable to People and Seventeen.)
If your issue is local in nature, examine local newspapers as well. In addition to the articles you find, get the name of the reporter who covers the area that interests you, and ask for an interview; he or she may well have additional information that has not been published.
There are many resource people in the library who can suggest other sources of information. The Reference Librarian and the people at the Information Desk are available for consultation.
Some non-academic local, national, or international groups sometimes do data-gathering of their own on political questions. For example: Amnesty International sponsors investigations each year and keeps reports on previous projects; The League of Women Voters researches local candidates and issues. Talk with these and other groups to locate additional information about your topic.
Finally, don't overlook the value of interviews (in person, by phone, or even by e-mail) with decision-makers. Sometimes it will take a long series of phone calls to figure out which individuals or officials are responsible for making decisions on the question you're researching. Don't get discouraged; be persistent. When you locate a good source of information, prepare in advance for the interview. Review the information you have, so that you can ask knowledgeable questions. Have a written list of questions with you so that you remember exactly what you need to know. Ask your interviewee to recommend other sources of information.
2. Points of View: To get the full picture, be sure that your sources of information reflect several different points of view. Some magazines and newspapers look at politics from a conservative perspective -- for example, the National Review and the American Spectator. Others tend toward liberal views -- e.g., the New Republic and the Progressive. It's fine to use these "opinionated" sources in your research. In fact, it may enrich your understanding of the topic. Just be careful that you don't confine your reading to sources that reflect one perspective, to the exclusion of the others. For example, if you are researching an environmental issue, The Sierra Club's magazine Sierra may be very helpful for your paper, but don't forget BusinessWeek and industry publications.
3. Research by Mail: You may find it helpful to request information by mail or Email. For example, your Senators and Representative in Congress may be willing to obtain government documents for you that relate to the topic of your paper. (write: The Honorable _______ _______, U.S. Senate (or House of Representatives), Washington, D.C.). A relevant corporation or interest group may also have information to provide.
But the information you request by mail may not arrive in time to be used in your paper, so don't plan on making it the centerpiece of your research effort. Particularly if you wait until mid-semester to write requesting the information, you may well find yourself empty-handed when the paper is due unless you have already gathered a lot of material from other sources.
D. Substance: Putting the Research Together
A paper should do more than tell a story; it should present an argument. To do so, keep the following in mind:
Conduct your research with an open mind. Don't start with the intent of proving a point; be willing to find evidence showing that your first assessment of the problem was wrong, or only partially right.
When you have all the information you've sought, take the time to think about what it means: to sort out the important from the unimportant, to examine the evidence until you feel confident that you know what's going on in the area you've researched.
Then you should be in a position not just to describe what has happened, but to explain the patterns you have found. "Making an argument" can mean offering a coherent set of reasons why a set of events occurred. Or you might make use of an important concept from the course to help the reader understand what you have found.
Be sure that you support your main points by offering examples or evidence. Don't assume that the reader will accept what you say without question. There is no reason for the reader to trust your statements unless you can provide some evidence of their validity. That can be provided in the text of the paper itself, or with the use of footnotes.
E. Footnoting and Bibliography
l. What should be footnoted?
a. A statement of fact needs a footnote unless it is generally known and/or accepted. For example, the statement, "Senator Kennedy said recently that he will oppose the Medicare reform bill," needs a footnote. The statement, "Senator Kennedy is a Democrat," does not.
b. A statement of opinion requires a footnote unless it's your opinion. If you are reporting a judgment by someone else that might be disputed -- e.g., that PCBs are Wooster's worst health hazard; that Congressman Regula is more conservative than his constituents are -- you need a footnote so the reader can properly evaluate the judgment.
c. If you take some phrases, sentences or paragraphs word-for-word from a written source, you must put the material in quotation marks and footnote it.
d. If you take an idea directly from a written source, footnote it. If you aren't using quotation marks, you need to paraphrase the material -- put it in your own words. Don't use material word-for-word from any source unless you put it in quotation marks and footnote it. That's plagiarism.
e. Keep in mind that the purpose of footnoting is to let the reader evaluate what you're saying (by taking the nature of the source into account) and get more information about the topic from that source, if he or she would like. Whenever you think it might help the reader to know the source of your information, footnote that source.
f. When in doubt, footnote. There is no such crime as using too many footnotes.
2. What is an acceptable method of footnoting?
Several methods are acceptable; the important thing is to be consistent and use the same method throughout your paper. Footnotes can be placed at the bottom of the page to which they apply, or on a separate page at the end of the paper (endnotes).
a. The conventional method
The first time you have material to footnote, place the number "1" (raised slightly above the line, or in parentheses) after the material. At the bottom of the page or the end of the paper, type the number "1" followed by a citation. The next footnote is "2", even if the material comes from the same source as "1."
Citations can read this way:
Books: Jesse Helms, Paving the Grand Canyon (Denver: Wilderness Press, l990) pp. 2-3.
Articles: Jesse Helms, "Paving the Grand Canyon," The Interior Department News, vol. 5 (Spring, l998), pp. 2-3.
Chapters in Books: Jesse Helms, "Paving the Grand Canyon," in Phil Gramm, ed., How To Be An Outdoorsman. (Denver: Wilderness Press, 1998), pp. 2-3.
Other variants are possible; choose one and use it consistently. To save time and space, use Ibid., Idem., Op. Cit. where appropriate. You can also use footnotes to provide further information about a point you make in the paper, or to raise an interesting aside that would break the flow of the argument if it were included in the body of the paper.
Conclude the paper with a bibliography, listing all the sources you've used in researching the paper (not just the ones cited in footnotes). Put the sources in alphabetical order, using one of the forms shown above.
b. Citation in the text: another method of footnoting.
In place of a footnote number, simply put in parentheses the author, date, and page number of the source. An example:
I'd prefer to work with people who are smarter than I am; unfortunately, there are very few (Hales, 1998: 2).
If the material comes from more than one source, list each source in the parentheses, like this: (Lantis, l997: 4; Kille, 1998: 3) If you are citing two different works that an author has written in the same year, designate them with different letters of the alphabet. Example: (Krain, l997a: 4; Krain, l997b: 967)
You can still use notes to provide additional material; just designate them with numbers or asterisks and place the notes at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. Again, a bibliography is necessary. Use this format or some variant:
Clinton, Bill (1998). Why Little Rock Was More Fun. (Washington, D.C.: Hillary Press).
Perot, Ross (1996). "It's That Simple," World Gazette, 2:1, pp. 1-20.
Jackson, Jesse (1988). "How to Rhyme Anything," in Hart, G., Famous Short Campaigns (Washington: Tower Press), pp. 1-31.
c. The engineering method
Prepare a bibliography, in alphabetical order, with each of the sources numbered. An example:
1. Gephardt, Richard. 1998. "Pros and Cons of Impeachment." National Review 40:2, 20-40.
2. Reagan, Ronald. 1903. Bedtime for Bonzo (Hollywood: Preminger Press).
Then, whenever you want to cite a particular source, put the number of that source in brackets, in the text, followed by a page number. e.g.:
Chimpanzees cannot sleep without milk and cookies [2, pp. l0-12].
Every time you use material from that source, you cite the same reference number in the text. In the above example, every time Bedtime for Bonzo is cited, you use the reference number "2" in the text.
F. Expressing Your Ideas Effectively
Many students object to hearing about grammar, sentence structure, and spelling when a paper is graded. That's like saying you need to write in correct, understandable English only when you are in an English class. It's clear that the more often the reader is distracted by misspellings, bad grammar or incomplete sentences, the less likely he or she is to understand the points you're trying to make. It's harder for a reader to appreciate your thoughts while struggling with your syntax.
If you have real problems with writing, now is the time to solve them; don't wait until you have to face an employer with your first written report when your new job is on the line. Take a writing course! Or go to the Writing Center for help with drafts of your paper. In the short term, ask someone who is a good writer to read and correct your paper, and explain how you can avoid repeating any errors that were found in the paper. Also, feel free to ask your instructor whether he or she is willing to read drafts of your paper. You never know, he or she just might!
Herešs some brief advice. Write clearly; donšt use jargon unless you really understand it. Make sure you know how to avoid run-on sentences and sentence fragments. Use a topic sentence when you begin a paragraph. Use a spell-checker (dictionaries qualify), but don't rely on that alone... Proofread your paper. Read it out loud once - if something sounds awkward, it probably is. Make sure the writing style is not too conversational. And perhaps most importantly, write it soon enough so that you have time to re-read it, and to revise your first draft, before you turn it in!